Revista Brasileira de Educação do Campo
Brazilian Journal of Rural Education
ARTIGO/ARTICLE/ARTÍCULO
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.20873/uft.rbec.e9157
Tocantinópolis/Brasil
v. 5
e9157
10.20873/uft.rbec.e9157
2020
ISSN: 2525-4863
1
Este conteúdo utiliza a Licença Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
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When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
Camila Zucon Ramos de Siqueira
1
,
Maria de Fátima Almeida Martins
2
1
Universidade Estadual de Minas Gerais - UEMG. Curso de Pedagogia. Avenida Paraná, 3001, Jardim Belverdere I,
Divinópolis - MG. Brasil.
2
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG.
Author for correspondence: camilazucon@gmail.com
ABSTRACT. The main idea of this study is to discuss the
relationship between peasantry, the educational process of
peasant work and school. To handle this issue, readings about
peasantry, Countryside Education and Pedagogy of Alternation
were done, as well as the analysis of data from the doctoral
research carried out in the northern territory of Espírito Santo,
Southeastern region of Brazil, where rural pedagogy has been
expanded to several public schools. Pedagogy of Alternation,
one of the ways found by peasants to educate their children,
brings out the rural voice and the productive and cultural
practices to the formative process, being the land, labor and
family triad the pillar of this experience. What we found in this
research was a practice of the peasant movement and its attempt
of including the school in the maintaining of this triad with the
purpose of educating critically, involving an educational project
that meets emancipation horizons collectively built - not only
schooling.
Keywords: Peasantry, Countryside Education, Peasant School.
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
Tocantinópolis/Brasil
v. 5
e9157
10.20873/uft.rbec.e9157
2020
ISSN: 2525-4863
2
Quando campesinato vira verbo: campesinar a escola!
RESUMO. O objetivo deste artigo é discutir a relação entre o
campesinato, o processo educativo do trabalho camponês e a
escola. Para lidar com essa questão partiu-se de leituras sobre o
campesinato, Educação do Campo e Pedagogia da Alternância,
assim como da análise dos dados da pesquisa de doutorado
desenvolvida no território norte do Espírito Santo, região
Sudeste do Brasil, onde a pedagogia camponesa tem sido
expandida para várias escolas públicas. A Pedagogia da
Alternância, uma das formas encontrada pelos camponeses para
educar seus filhos, traz a voz e as práticas produtivas e culturais
campesinas para o processo formativo, sendo a tríade terra,
trabalho e família o pilar dessa experiência. O que encontramos
nessa pesquisa foi uma prática do movimento camponês e seu
intento de incluir a escola na manutenção dessa tríade com o
propósito de educar de forma crítica, implicando um projeto
educativo que atenda horizontes de emancipação construídos
coletivamente – não somente de escolarização.
Palavras-chave: Campesinato, Educação do Campo, Escola
Camponesa.
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
Tocantinópolis/Brasil
v. 5
e9157
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2020
ISSN: 2525-4863
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Cuando el campesinado se convierte en verbo:
¡campesinar la escuela!
RESUMEN. El objetivo de este artículo es discutir la relación
entre el campesinado, el proceso educativo del trabajo
campesino y la escuela. Para lidiar con esta cuestión, se ha
analizado la literatura sobre el campesinado, la Educación Rural
y la Pedagogía de la Alternancia, así como el análisis de los
datos de la investigación de doctorado desempeñada en el
territorio norte del estado de Espírito Santo, en la región sureste
de Brasil, donde la pedagogía campesina se ha expandido a
varias escuelas públicas. La Pedagogía de la Alternancia, una de
las formas encontradas por los campesinos para educar a sus
hijos, trae la voz del campesinado, y sus prácticas productivas y
culturales, hacia el propio proceso formativo, configurándose
como pilar de esta experiencia la triada tierra, trabajo y familia.
Lo que hemos encontrado en nuestra investigación es una
práctica del movimiento campesino y su intento de incluir la
escuela en la manutención de esta triada con el propósito de
educar críticamente, involucrándose en un proyecto educativo
que atienda no sólo horizontes de escolarización, sino también
verdaderos horizontes de emancipación colectivamente
construidos.
Palabras clave: Campesinado, Educación Rural, Escuela
Campesina.
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
Tocantinópolis/Brasil
v. 5
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2020
ISSN: 2525-4863
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Introduction
When we talk about verbs in the
infinitive form we refer to an idea of
movement potencial, to the act or effect of
doing something, an action image, as
pointed out by dictionaries. This nominal
form of verbs does not refer to a specific
person, time or way, but rather to a word
that can be conjugated in different ways.
This way, when we propose to peasantry
the school, we allude to the act that is
linked to the idea of moving the school
space from peasant knowledge, expanding
the notion of education beyond school;
dialectically, a denial and an incorporation
of the idea of schooling the peasant class.
In this sense, in denial of a logic of
schooling that distanced peasants’
daughters and sons from their territory, a
pedagogy that could consider peasant time
in the school calendar was thought out: the
Pedagogy of Alternation. It establishes
relations between going to school without
abandoning the dynamics of peasant life,
which, according to Gimonet (2007),
quoted by Begnami (2019), creates a
pedagogy of relationships, alternating
educational times and spaces, that is,
periods of boarding school, called school-
time, and stay or socio-professional
environment, called community-time.
This pedagogy emerged in France in
1937 from the educational experiences of
Maisons Familiales Rurales (Chartier,
1986 apud Silva, 2012). In Brazil, this
formative practice arrived in the mid-
1960s, in Espírito Santo, converging with
the needs of some peasant movements that
were already dedicated to building
alternating schools experiences in
partnership with unions, associations,
churches and public authorities (Andrade
& Andrade, 2012). Such experiences, very
plural, started from different political tones
in each territory where they were initiated,
influenced by local contradictions and the
organized groups that encamp them.
In Brazil and in the world, this
diversity of usages and abuses of the
Pedagogy of Alternation is a reality.
Therefore, our intention is not to generalize
it as a peasant pedagogy in all contexts, but
to affirm its fruits and developments in the
northern territory of the state of Espírito
Santo, Brazil, given that this experience
may serve as perspective for other
territorialities.
In this article, we seek to
approximate the categories of peasantry
(Martins, 1983), peasantry and peasant
pedagogy to discuss Rural Education as a
practice/movement/paradigm (Arroyo &
Fernandes, 1999). This interlocution of the
peasantry as a social class and as a lifestyle
and of the peasantry as a peasant ethics
unveils emancipatory elements in dialogue
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
Tocantinópolis/Brasil
v. 5
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ISSN: 2525-4863
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with anthropological, ethnographic,
pedagogical and educational issues.
In question, this theoretical
movement that we followed was caused by
the very reality, which combines a wide
range of affiliations and perspectives, as
we have seen in interpretations that helped
us on the analytical path.
In the scope of schooling offered to
peasant people, the verb to fixate was very
much used in the sense of convincing them
to stay in the countryside, that is, keeping
men in the countryside was the initial
proposal of alternating schools, since these
were very much linked to the notion of
subordination of the peasantry to urban
classes under the justification that the
departure of the countryside to the city
wouldn’t result in the populational
swelling of the latter.
This project that we named Rural
Education emerged in Brazil in the 1930s
and brought ingrained to its principles a
proposal that saw the rural end and the
urban hegemony, also linking itself to the
idea of the end of the countryside and the
peasantry. It was a theoretical-political
reading based on a partial analysis of
reality, the result of our explosive and
dependent urbanization process.
In the last century, Brazil has gone
through this process of impacting urban
growth in terms of lifestyle and in the
interpretation of the city over the
countryside, although the country is mainly
constituted by agrarian relations in
production, habits and customs. As a
result, the denial of its agrarian productive
potential and the value of the peasantry
was reinforced. Furthermore, this scenario,
associated with industrialization, occurred
in a relationship of dependence of central
countries, resulting in the expulsion of
peasants to urban centers in search of job
opportunities. Accentuating the social
inequality established by the agrarian issue
and the presence of large landowners, there
was an intense conflict between
landowners and peasants.
In the meantime, according to
Leonardo Boff (2016, p. 28), “we are,
therefore, one of the most unequal
countries in the world, which means a
country that is violent and full of social
injustices. This social inequality is one of
the main causes of violence in the
countryside and in the city”, - conflict that
results, to this day, in daily massacres. The
shadows that produced this inequality and
violence, as the liberation theologian
defends, have three historical roots: our
colonial past, that creates dependence and
appreciation of foreigners; the indigenous
genocide, culminating in the absence of
respect and discrimination; and slavery,
which finalizes the dehumanization
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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process towards people of African
ancestry, that is, the entirety of Brazilian
people.
The fourth shadow that explains
much of the violence in the
countryside is the Brazilian Land
Law, number 601 of September 18th,
1850. According to this law, the
appropriation of the land would only
be done through the purchase of the
Crown, which owns all of them. As a
result, the poor and Afro-
descendants, due to lack of money,
were totally excluded and left to the
discretion of the large landowners,
submitted to work without social
guarantees (Boff, 2016, p. 28) (our
translation).
The Land Law of 1850 structurally
founds the Brazilian agrarian issue,
officializing poverty based on inequality of
access to land. This injustice persists in
time and space, taking on contours that
accentuate social segregation and the
tradition of exploitation of male and
female farm workers by large landowners,
heirs of the colonialist, genocidal and
slavery shadows.
In this context, the struggles of the
peasant movements led to popular
resistance throughout Latin America,
ensuring that the protagonism of peasantry
in social movements is a reality. In Brazil,
the largest social movement for the fight
for land was created, as a result of the need
for an articulation that guaranteed peasant
resistance against the violence of the
latifundium, which expropriated the
collective wealth.
Agrarian reform has become a
prominent banner, and land occupation has
been constituted as an important
instrument of affirmation of the peasantry,
with the motto “occupy, resist and
produce” enunciators of this process of
building the fight for the land. This
movement expanded, became more
widespread and started to have several
fronts, one of which is education, giving
rise to Rural Education.
The historical denial of the right to
school was among the denials of the State
and the society to the peasant people,
coming to be seen by the social movement
as a very significant tactical and strategic
achievement. It was initially led by the
MST - Movimento dos Trabalhadores
Rurais Sem Terra (Movement of Landless
Rural Workers) and later articulated by
different movements and social
organizations, having, today, over two
decades of organization.
Rural Education is, simultaneously, a
movement, a practice and a theoretical
methodological paradigm (Caldart, 2012).
It is a movement, because the claims and
political struggles constitute the central
axis; a practice, because it morphs and
becomes (re) builds daily in schools,
forums, committees and higher education
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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courses; and it is a paradigm, because
several formulations are dialectically
articulated in this great front, which
defends the thesis of the fight for an
education from / in / for the countryside.
And also, it articulates the peasantry in its
various forms, associative, union, school,
among others. We say, in this way, that it
is a movement that aggregates without
reducing and without losing identity, since
this front does not occur as an autonomous
organizational instance, but, rather, as a
congregation of diverse groups organized
and in struggle.
Among the communities that make
up these guidelines are: quilombola
communities, with its territorial struggles
in the countryside and in the city linked to
the ancestry and historical debt of
Brazilian society; the gerazeiros,
traditional people who live in the plateaus,
biome of the gerais (generals) in the state
of Minas Gerais, Southeast region of
Brazil, which claim the cerrado
(vegetation of the Brazilian interior) as a
lifestyle, not as a means, as nature that is
not separated from life, confronting
agribusiness on a daily basis; and the
mangaba (Brazilian fruit) pickers, in the
state of Sergipe, Northeast of Brazil, who
resist for a living caatinga and a solidarity
economy, in addition to agroecological
production. All of these are examples of
initiatives that meet up and nurture the
Rural Education.
Contextually, the peasant movement
does not only want to educate their sons
and daughters, but to fight for the
maintenance of the triad land, labor and
family, always in search of
territorialization through school. Since, the
criticism of the rural school as a project
hegemonic of the Brazilian State since
1930, precarious and discontinuous, made
a long journey until the construction of an
emancipatory bias of peasant populations,
since it was a school that denied the culture
of the countryside and affirmed the city as
a unique and indisputable horizon.
Therefore, the peasant movement's
contestation vein has always been
associated with the proposition, to the
struggle for Agrarian Reform and has
taken place through the occupation of
unproductive latifundios and the
transformation of these lands into
collective territory of life, production,
resistance and of Education. Agrarian
Reform and Rural Education are flags for
the construction of the peasantry as a verb:
to peasant the schools.
In this context, as presented, there is,
under development, a representative
experience of these actions in the northern
territory of Espírito Santo, Southeast
region of Brazil, that works to expand a
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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v. 5
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2020
ISSN: 2525-4863
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peasant pedagogy to various public,
community schools and Agrarian Reform
settlements. This pedagogy also known as
Pedagogy of Alternation, brings out the
voice and peasant productive and cultural
practices to the formative process, also
considering the triad land, labor and family
as the pillar of this experience. One of the
main pedagogical tools is the Studies Plan,
which listens to the peasant families’
demands to build and structure the school
curriculum.
The practice developed by these
schools refers to critical education, which
implies the construction of an educational
project that meets the demands of
emancipation built collectively and in
struggle. For this reason, a process of
pensantry the school, bringing peasant
work and culture to the landmarks of that
space, as opposed to the precarious
schooling offered hegemonically by the
State in rural areas.
What we will discuss next will be the
action of these rural schools in the north of
the state of Espírito Santo as reaffirmer of
the peasant practice and the territory as life
project. To apprehend this reality and the
concepts about peasantry constitute as
central to understanding it as practice in
the territory. Rural and Peasant Education
mobilize the territory as a transforming and
reaffirming action of a school and of a
peasantry project.
Peasant and peasantry
Classical understandings, involving
the agrarian issue as theoretical and
methodological, urge us to go further in
order to discover a set of divergences put
up by the various schools of Agrarian
Geography thought. It is worth mentioning
that we will only make a brief note on such
studies. These concepts become relevant in
this article because Rural Education is
beyond school and seeks to build a process
that considers work and peasant culture.
Therefore, peasant and peasantry are
founding ideas of the notion of building a
peasant school.
First result of the primitive
accumulation of capital, of private property
of the land and, subsequently, of the land
concentration and the maintenance of the
latifundium - unproductive and productive
- ,that is, of the capital contradiction, “the
agrarian issue is the movement of a
collection of problems relating to the
development of agriculture and the
workers resistance fights, which are
inherent to the unequal and contradictory
process of capitalist relations of
production” (Fernandes, 2015, p. 30).
Fernandes (2015) systematizes and
disseminates the existence of two
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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paradigms that explain the Brazilian
countryside: the Paradigma da Questão
agrária - PQA (Paradigm of Agrarian
Issue) and the Paradigma do Capitalismo
Agrário - PCA (Paradigm of Agrarian
Capitalism). To the author, in the
“paradigm of the agrarian question, the
problem is in capitalism, and for the
agrarian capitalism paradigm, the problem
is in the peasantry” (Fernandes, 2015, p.
27). To us, supporters of the first strand,
there is an agrarian issue, and capitalism
creates a set of contradictions for the
peasantry life, which, even circumvented,
will only be overcome with the end of
capitalism itself. The PQA is not
homogeneous, and, to the author, it could
be divided into two tendencies: a
proletarian one and a peasantry one.
Inspired by Shanin (2008), we know
that conceptualization and abstraction do
not reach reality in its entirety, but the
recognition of peasantry as a social class
and lifestyle is fundamental for the
construction of its emancipation.
We agree, in this context, with
Marques (2008a, p. 60), who adds that this
peasantry is made up of “a diversity of
social forms based on the relationship of
family work and different forms of access
to land, as the squatter, the partner, the
forester, the tenant, smallholder, etc. ”, and
that the main role of the family in
production and in this lifestyle - along
with the work of the land - leads to the
constitution of “common elements to all
these social forms” (Marques, 2008a, p.
60).
We observe a leading role of the
peasantry in current social movements, in
an emancipatory perspective in Brazil, as it
happened in the 19th century, when
peasant movements played a decisive role.
And this is an educational dimension that
educates even the school.
We emphasize that some analyzes,
linked to the proletarian paradigm, made
on the peasantry, tried to relegate it to
subjects attached to the land, with
precarious schooling, assigning them a
subordinate role and out of political
decisions. In this sense, Ribeiro (2010, p.
162) points out that “it could be that these
were the most visible aspects; could also
be, that this is a strong reason why the
popular rural / peasant social movements
along with the land of work, demand the
education of the countryside that they
thought, managed and evaluated”.
For all intents and purposes, the
peasantry needs to be understood in a
historical and dynamic way. It is through
this perspective that we observe the
significant changes on the understanding of
peasants’ role throughout history in
different geographic contexts.
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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The destiny of this social class is
defined throughout its own history,
from the positions that it occupies in
the struggles field that are formed
around the agrarian issue and the
choices and strategies it adopts in
face of possible historically
determined (Marques, 2008a, p. 60)
(our translation).
Thus, the fate of this social class
cannot be predetermined, and the uneven
geographical development of capitalism
must be carefully observed, highlighting
the importance of territorializing analyzes,
without losing sight of the notion of
entirety. Now, the peasantry is forged
historically and geographically and is
produced from the family work and use as
value (Marques, 2008).
On the contrary, decampment is
encouraged by a set of state actions, such
as Rural Education, whose peasant
perspective that proclaims it goes through
production of new forms of life and, also,
for the reproduction of existing forms.
Therefore, thinking about the peasant
territory is a condition for developing
educational and school policies consistent
with their subjects and actions. The field /
city and rural / urban dialectic, without
necessarily dichotomizing, based on
arbitrary delimitations, becomes of
fundamental importance. Both sides of the
territory need to be analyzed, since there is
no field without a city and there is no city
without a field.
In agreement with Ribeiro (2010),
we observed the importance of the
peasantry in composition of the historical
subject that operates the processes of social
transformation. According to the author:
The popular rural / field social
movements are part of the historical
subject of social transformation, still under
construction, and which includes all
categories of workers. Overcoming the
antagonistic and, therefore, contradictory
relationship between capital and labor,
supposes overcoming the separation
between city and countryside. (Ribeiro,
2010, p. 163).
In such a way, this overcoming
requires a partnership between workers and
political organizations in the countryside
and in the city.
Under the same prism, in the
intellectual effort to break with a
dichotomous idea, there is a generic form
of two definitions of countryside and city
linked to the dichotomous and continuum
approach. According to Marques (2002, p.
100), “in the first one, the countryside is
thought of as a distinct social environment
that opposes the city; in the second, it is
argued that the progress of the urbanization
process is responsible for significant
changes in society in general, also
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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affecting the rural space ”. Both
perspectives, however, present the
suppression of the countryside by the city.
There is a very widespread notion of
the spreading of the urban, at such a level
that it occurs the limitation of the rural.
This notion does not allow us to
understand the Brazilian territory, since the
preponderance is applied based on an
urban-centric idea, which contributes little
to the understanding of the contradictory
and the complementation of the
countryside / city relationship.
Along these lines, “it is necessary to
examine the concrete social processes of
alienation, separation, exteriority and
abstraction in a critical way. Recovering
the history of rural and urban capitalism”
(Marques, 2002, p. 104), so that we can
affirm that “the experiences of direct,
reciprocal and cooperative relationships
are often discovered and rediscovered
under pressure. Now, neither the city will
save the countryside, nor the countryside
the city” (Marques, 2002, p. 104, emphasis
added).
It is necessary to break through with
rivalries and perspectives that divide the
rural and the urban. Such a dichotomy,
imposed by capitalism, only makes the
struggle of rural and city workers more
difficult. Instead of dividing, it is necessary
to understand the interrelationship and
interdependence of these spaces. Thus, the
reciprocity that exists in the field / city
relationship is highlighted in a non-
hierarchical way.
Camacho and Fernandes (2017)
reiterate this contradictory dialectical
unity, since, with regard to the field-city
relationship, each day, the old and rigid
characteristics used to differentiate the
rural and the urban have been decreasing,
given that the industry is, today, present in
both spaces. Likewise, the wage worker
lives in the city, but often works as a farm
worker in the field.
These new relations between the
rural and the urban give rise to what
Ariovaldo Umbelino de Oliveira (1999),
quoted by Camacho and Fernandes (2017),
calls a dialectical or contradictory unit.
That is, the differences in economic
activities between the city and the
countryside, between industry and
agriculture, are being overcome. Thus, a
dialectical unity is formed, therefore,
combined and contradictory.
However, in our society, such
opposition persists - even though,
theoretically, it is incongruous to separate
country and city -, which makes it difficult
to overcome the subordination relationship
of the peasant classes to urban financial
capital.
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school!
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Bombardi's research (2011, 2012)
shows, in question, the use of pesticides by
the Brazilian peasantry as evidence of class
subordination to international financial
capital. The peasant territory and the
capital territory, in this context, are in
permanent dispute and are (de) (re)
territorialized in their dynamic of “intense
process of subordination of the income of
peasant land to monopoly capital: more
than 1/3 small farms in Brazil use poisons”
(Bombardi, 2011, p. 1). Thus, the
expression "monopoly", in this case,
appears more vivid than ever: the United
States, Switzerland and Germany, together,
through their companies, control 70% of
the sale of pesticides in Brazil” (Bombardi,
2011, p. 2).
Camacho and Fernandes (2017) also
explain the contradictions established and
highlight the importance of the permanent
struggle against the subordination imposed
on the peasantry by capital.
It is obvious that we cannot
generalize the analyzes regarding
peasant agriculture, treating this
problem from an idealistic and
simplistic analysis, since the market
logic itself imposes scale production
on many peasants as one of the only
alternatives for this production to
reach the consumer market. So it is
not uncommon seeing peasants
engaged in a single commercial
activity. However, this reality reveals
the peasant subordination to capital
and the territoriality of capital in
peasant territory, which confirms the
need to fight against capital, in order
to free the peasantry from this
subjection imposed by capital”.
(Camacho & Fernandes, 2017, p. 61)
(our translation).
And, in the school space itself, these
contradictions are evident, once the use of
poisons are keeping the sons and daughters
of peasants away from farming due to an
evident issue of non-poisoning. In
agribusiness logic, therefore, there is a
dehumanization of peasant work, given
that the school has become the space for
experimenting peasantry for many peasant
children. That is, to enable the construction
of this identity within the territory.
We see that the proper and the
appropriated land by the peasantry has an
ancestral wealth, because “permanently the
peasants exercise and maintain their
creativity and inventiveness and, more than
that, express their rebelliousness!”
(Ramos, 2015, p. 51). The peasants,
therefore, dispute the territory with
agribusiness and also express themselves,
by the appropriation of the rural school and
by the peasantry of the school space. There
are different forms of this appropriation,
and one of the guiding principles is
agroecology as a movement / science /
practice.
In turn, agroecology can be
understood as a Latin American
construction that is consolidated based on
the characteristics of the peasants in the
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countries on the periphery of capitalism,
although it is based on all indigenous
ancestry and the original people in general.
It presents itself as a possible alternative,
since, “in addition to purely conjunctural
situations, the permanence of peasants on
the land and their social reproduction, is
today seriously threatened by the
hegemonic technological model that is,
worldwide, the support base for
agribusiness” (Guhur & Toná, 2012, p.
58).
Petersen and Caporal (2012), in the
same perspective, point out that a first
approach to the concept of agroecology
leads us to the teachings of Stephen R.
Gliessman, who, already in 1981, wrote
about “The ecological basis for the
application of traditional agricultural
technology to the management of tropical
agroecosystems”. It is worth noting that his
studies were even based on the diverse
practices developed by the Mexican
indigenous people (Gliessman, 2000 apud
Petersen & Caporal, 2012, p. 65).
In this field of knowledge, another
highlight is the author Altieri (2012), who
presented notions of scientific bases of
alternative agriculture.
There is also, at the University of
Córdoba, in Spain, a research group that
brings, from a reading of the agrarian
question associated with peasant actions,
“the seminal book on European
Agroecology, with the title 'Ecology,
Peasantry and History', by Eduardo Sevilla
Guzmán and Manuel González de Molina”
(Petersen & Caporal, 2012, p. 65). From
that moment on, “Agroecology would
become a science that goes beyond the
application of ecology concepts and
principles to the management of agro-
ecosystems, in the search for more
sustainability in agriculture” (Petersen &
Caporal, 2012, p. 65).
In Brazil, agroecology has been an
alternative linked to agriculture, the
environmental issue and the struggle for
land of peasant people; thus, a movement
of a contradictory character to the
development of capitalism in the
countryside. Conversely, the conservative
modernization of the Brazilian countryside
produces, simultaneously to crops with a
central pivot, transgenic seeds and all types
of pesticides; male and female workers see
the abatement of what remains of their
sovereignty and autonomy in peasant
work, see their lands being usurped.
The agroecological movement has
thus been forged as a dispute for structural
changes in the countryside and in the city,
allying itself with the historic struggle for
land, such as the Movements of Small
Farmers and Landless Rural Workers.
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Note that this dispute takes place in a
hostile environment, in which ‘the
defense of the agroecological
movement by the historical validity
of peasant family farming is still very
often interpreted as a trend of utopian
idealism. But this validity is being
built on a daily basis by the peasantry
itself, through silent fights over
control of fractions of the territory
with the purpose of reducing the
power of appropriation of the wealth
socially generated by the industrial
and financial capital linked to
agribusiness”. (Petersen, Dal Sóglio
& Caporal, 2009, apud Petersen &
Caporal, 2012, p. 66) (our
translation).
The various (re) existences of the
peasantry are thus being constantly
appropriated by capital logic. As stated in
the work “The (mis)directions of the
environment”, by Carlos Walter Porto-
Gonçalves (1989), there are, in evidence,
the directions of ecological speech and the
capacity of capital to embrace everything
with a capitalism dressed in green, as also
mentioned by Marta Inez Medeiros
Marques (2008b):
The countryside now includes new
rural areas created, among others,
from the use of the countryside for
recreational and tourist activities, and
for valuing the potential of rural
populations to contribute to the
development of sustainable ways of
managing nature and conserving the
environment - the proposal of
agroecology is born in this context.
New forms of resistance and fighting
are also engendered (Marques,
2008b, p. 56) (our translation).
Capital constantly recreates and
reinvents itself, but that is not its exclusive
capacity; the movement also transforms the
countryside, keeps certain essential
characteristics and presents new forms of
fighting and existence. Many urban
workers face the challenge of returning to
the countryside, fleeing rent in cities and
becoming peasants. Therefore, we observe
an increase in this class and its
reproduction and recreation.
The tendency of contemporary
peasant agriculture to assert its
relative autonomy vis-à-vis the
different fractions of capital, ... and
move towards agroecology maintains
the possibility of its social
reproduction, given that it socially
builds the bases of another paradigm.
(Carvalho & Costa, 2012, p. 31) (our
translation).
We see an encounter between
agroecology and the different forms of
peasant life, constituting itself as a
proposal not only an alternative to
agribusiness, but, essentially, as a
movement of resistance and reconstruction
of food agro-ecosystems, resuming
productive and also ideological autonomy
in the chosen ways of producing food, in
addition on the field.
The head thinks from where the feet
step. In order to understand, it is
essential to know the social place of
the viewer. It is worth saying: how
someone lives, with whom they live,
what experience they have, where
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they work, what hopes cheer them.
This makes understanding always an
interpretation (Boff, 1997, p. 1) (our
translation).
Agroecology presents practice as a
criterion of truth and experiences, dares
and proposes forms of relationship with the
earth and with living beings, observing
nature's responses to stimuli and necessary
adjustments. But it is only possible when
experienced, and not studied as something
external. For this reason, we reiterate
Leonardo Boff: “The head thinks from
where the feet step” (Boff, 1997, p. 1).
To think of peasantry as a class, in
this way, is not to think of it mechanically
in its social dimension based on production
- sometimes agroecological - but in its
resistance to the maintenance of its
territory and its lifestyle. To Marques
(2008b, p. 63), “the fight for agrarian
reform in Brazil involves the affirmation of
a peasant project and has enabled workers
who had previously been proletarianized or
not to experience a peasant way of life and
its conformation as a class”. And peasantry
is a challenge also covered by the
educational process.
In Brazil, against a set of analyzes,
Oliveira (1999, p. 72) emphasizes that “the
peasants, instead of proletarianizing
themselves, started to fight to remain
peasants”, showing the growth in the
number of squatters between 1960 and
1985 in the Brazilian territory.
The materiality of peasant life
produces a subjectivity and a culture that is
produced and produces the peasantry.
Therefore, focusing on the “social place of
the viewer”, we bring the notion of
peasantry - term discussed by the
anthropologist Klaas Woortmann (1990),
which brings the debate with this category
to the understanding of the peasant reality,
contributing significantly to the reflection
of the land-labor-family relationship,
fundamental terms for the movement to
peasant the school.
In his 1990 essay “With a relative
you don't deal”, K. Woortmann states that
peasant ethics is based on a moral order,
which has implications for the way in
which the peasantry is constituted and how
the social group reproduces itself
materially, anchored in a culture and in its
own modus operandi.
According to the author, peasant
society brings reciprocity as a peasant
value, since “the land is not seen as an
object of work, but as an expression of
morality; not in its exteriority as a factor of
production, but as something thought out
and represented in the context of ethical
values”( Woortmaan, 1990, p. 12).
The anthropological focus on the
relationship of peasant subjects with the
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land explains a movement of resistance
that remains, materially, as a result of this
relationship, as a moral order that becomes
the principle for guaranteeing the
autonomy of work. Emphasis is given to
the role of the land in the constitution of
this moral order, given that it does not
appear as a commodity, or something for
the business, but, rather, “as heritage, or as
a gift from God, the land is not simply a
thing or merchandise” ( Woortmaan, 1990,
p. 12). The land appears as a family
heritage, a land of life, culture, production,
and not merely merchant.
It is important to note that this
peasantry is a quality, which Klass
Woortmaan (1990, p. 12) supposes
“common to different places and times”.
Thus, that peasant moral order would be in
all territories that produce this subjectivity,
since “in peasant cultures, land is not
thought without thinking of family and
labor, just as laboris not thought without
thinking of land and family” (Woortmaan,
1990, p. 19-23). All elements of the triad
are articulated in this moral order.
It is noteworthy that the influence of
the market in the peasant order is presented
as a domination over the peasantry, but
that the market, nevertheless, does not
organize this social group. The economic
order often appears as an interference with
peasantry, “it moves through the economic
order to realize, as an end, the moral order,
and, with it, peasantry” (Woortmaan, 1990,
p. 19).
Thereby, it is useless to understand
labor in a Family Center for Alternation
Training taking into consideration only the
element of labor, given that land and
family participate in this triad and explain
the production and reproduction of
alternation as pedagogy. Therefore, this
whole aspect is directly associated with an
educational project and influences the
construction of the school and the
schooling process.
Despite all the debate about the
concept of peasantry as a social class and a
lifestyle, this is the familiar character of
labor. After all, what does peasantry have
to do with alternation? Thus, go out and
back again to study, and go out to study
and never come back. As Martins (1983, p.
17) states, “the history of peasant-squatters
is a story of wandering”, and this is not
specific to squatters, but typical of most
Brazilian families, since almost all of
them, with their rural origin, needed to
leave their lands in search of ways to
survive.
It is also important to note the
existence of a relationship between the
elements faith, family and land as
components of a triad that, as mentioned
by Klaas Woortmann (1990) and
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reaffirmed by Ellen Woortmann (2004),
attributes the designation of peasantry.
According to the author, “man's labor
implies respect for the land (and nature, in
general), expecting from it what it can and
wants to give, that is, the food it is capable
of producing” (Woortmaan, 2004, p. 133).
Another relevant element to think
about peasantry is the relationship with
nature. If there is a shift in the notion of
individual property, this also includes the
relationship with nature, not in the sense of
an ecologized and preservationist
relationship, but, as Porto-Gonçalves
(1990) points out, in its socio-ecological
dimension.
Under this scenario, Rural Education
is essential, that is, an education that is
linked to the life of the peasants and that
happens in the communities where they
live; where they live, work, play and
celebrate their lives. That is, to think it
over, from this, the contradictory policies
of emptying out the countryside, which
starts early, from the moment when
children need to leave their homes, in the
fields, to go study in the cities' core
schools.
Now, Education begins by
guaranteeing schools for all the people and
for all levels, and should be a binding and
aggregating link in communities (Görgen,
2017). The idea of peasant education, from
this point of view, constitutes itself as a
reaffirmation of Rural Education itself,
invigorating its class dimension, counter-
proposal to the State project, of Rural
Education.
As an educational practice, some
actions emerge at school, however, these
reflect the territorial context in which
peasants live in that territory. One of these
practices is marked by the panel authored
by Jailson of the MST of Pinheiros, in
Espírito Santo. It is an artistic experience
exposed at the CEFFA Bley - Centro
Familiar de Formação em Alternância Bley
(Bley Family Training Center in
Alternation) which presents us part of this
context and highlights the territorial
dispute between agribusiness and peasant
agriculture, demonstrating the role of
organized youth in this struggle.
Image 1- Organized Youth Panel (MST-Pinheiros).
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Source: Authors' file.
The image highlights the peasant
territory and features elements such as the
school, the cooperative and the health
center. At the center is the banner of the
RACEFFAES - Regional dos Centros
Familiares de Formação em Alternância
do Espírito Santo (Regional Family
Centers for Training in Alternation of
Espírito Santo) and Via Campesina, both
seen as organizational possibilities for
peasant youth. The mystique, the
cooperation and the values are the
foundation, by means of notebooks in the
left corner, next to the hoe, the guitar and
the straw hat, the peasant cultural heritage.
This youth, therefore, puts pressure on
agribusiness (transgenic, monoculture of
sugar cane and eucalyptus and pesticides,
in the left corner) with another perspective
on life. The image title “Organized Youth
cultivating freedom in building
sustainability” brings a set of concepts;
among them, sustainability, a term also
associated with the Agrarian Capitalism
Paradigm - albeit for a different purpose -,
and also highlights the freedom of peasants
as the process of building their stories.
The beautiful panel presents the
scenery of peasant territory, of peasantry,
in which the youth plays a leading role in
the dispute over the territory instead of
agribusiness, the land as a commodity and
the space in its merely productive aspect.
Finally, diversity, equally highlighted, is
the mark of the territory's peasantry -
diversity of cultures, people, colors and
feelings. The territory is alive, dynamic
and consists of aspects that value life.
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Rural Education and Peasant Education
The notion of organization of this
territory and its many dimensions helps us
to think about the origin of the Rural
Education movement as an outgrowth of
Popular Education, linked to the denial of
Rural Education. But, why deal with
Peasant Education? Wouldn't that be the
Rural Education project? Yes and no. Yes,
because the Countryside Education
aggregates exactly that social class,
specifically in fight over its territory. No,
because the Countryside Education, today,
aggregates a much broader set of subjects:
university, social movements, peasant
schools and so many other experiences that
make up Peasant Education.
The educational project of and at the
Countryside Education territorially
expands its actions, in order to account for
relations in the territories, without,
however, losing sight of the specificities
that peasant class itself has. For the
peasantry, education as a public policy is
an essential condition to guarantee the
continuity of life production, that is, it is
linked to the peasant territory, but it is not
restricted to the context of schooling.
For this reason, Peasant Education
goes through the training of subjects in its
territory, and the school integrates only
part of this journey; life takes place, as
well, in the daily work in the fields, in
games, at parties, in daily and occasional
meetings, in the daily movement of
peasants.
A fundamental aspect of peasants life
is the relationship they develop with
the land in their daily lives. In it,
workers develop their specific
knowledge that involves cultivation,
sowing the land, harvesting. In these
activities, their knowledge of nature
and its cycles are mobilized, arising
from the exercise of looking, reading
the indications that it presents to
them to interpret the signs of nature,
essential for the management of the
land destined for planting, the animal
breeding that are the essential means
to the life of the settlers. In these
activities essential to the
reproduction of material life, the
peasants establish relationships with
nature and with other men and
women, produce culture,
representations about life ”. (Batista,
2018, p. 4) (our translation).
These ties and this dynamic of life
refer to something genuine in peasant
culture. Schools, in the meantime, often
use experimentation, fieldwork and
practical work activities as an instrument
to elucidate the ideas printed in books,
booklets and textbooks. Thinking, then, of
Peasant Education, or even Rural
Education, demands a systematization and
work in the peasant territory itself, based
on the desires and conceptions of this
reality - including, also, the dialogue with
the production of scientific knowledge,
since “the existing science today is an
active human and social effort and can
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only be understood as such” (Shanin, 2017,
p. 339), and, moreover, in the name of
“progress”, it has encouraged the reading
of the peasantry disappearance and,
therefore, favored the oppression and
decimation of these cultures.
The cultural violence experienced by
peasant people in schools is notorious to
this day, even with the advance in
recognition of the countryside as a life
space; it is about the urban-centric
movement of the world and the
commodification and pasteurization of
habits, customs and its subjects. Thus,
“simultaneously with this process of
formation and territorialization of the
peasantry, many peasant families are
expelled, expropriated, that is, they are
deterritorialized” (Fernandes, 2012, p.
746).
Peasant Education, on the other
hand, strengthens and produces ways of
making peasant territorialization feasible to
carry out its great challenge of
“maintaining its sovereignty by developing
its territory through its relative autonomy
and facing the hegemony of capital”
(Fernandes, 2012, p. 746), in addition to
contributing to the affirmation of family
work as a viable and autonomous mode of
production.
As supporters of the Agrarian Issue
Paradigm, Martins (1983), Oliveira (1999),
Fernandes (2015), Shanin (2008), Marques
(2008a), Ramos (2015), linked to the
peasant tendency, claim that there is no
definition or concept that fits the peasants,
since their diversity and historical
dynamics is immense - but, still, that does
not prevent them from constituting
themselves as a class.
In social terms, the peasant is not a
person or a family, he is a
collectivity, often a group and - when
he puts his hands - a class. A social
conglomerate based on a multi-active
family economy, but also of those
who are part of, and by their right,
belong to it, having functions not
directly agricultural, participate in
community life and share the destiny
of farmers. (Bartra, 2010, p. 11, our
translation)
i
.
This collectivity has in common
family work with multiple activities, so
they are formed as a class with community
and collective interests. Thinking about the
peasantry implies thinking about its society
project, which is diverse, but with
principles that can be summarized in
agroecology. Traditions and the collective
way of being in the world of peasantry, and
the peasant education that is configured as
a process of self-recognition of the
peasantry as a class, reverberates, in Brazil,
in the formulation of Rural Education as a
movement, as a practice and as a science.
Then, the notion of peasantry of
school emerges, which consists of the
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appropriation of the school by peasant
logic, from the insertion of these
collectivist interests, and also from the
perspective of solidarity. That is, the
peasant education school based on the
demands of the peasantry.
The analysis of the practices and
forms of organization of the agricultural
families schools, in the north of Espírito
Santo, indicated that the school practices in
the territory pointed to an intrinsic
articulation between school and the peasant
way of life, which led us to inquire about
the schooling of the peasantry, that is, a
form of peasant school. This is what we
will discuss next.
School the peasantry or peasant the
school?
The peasantry, as a social class and
as a lifestyle, followed, for many decades,
in Brazil, away from schooling rights, very
clearly directed towards urban social
classes. And, even when this right was
met, it was in a precarious way, added to
the demerit that was made of the class
itself.
This educational issue articulates
itself with the problematization of the
agrarian issue, and, looking at it through
the peasantry bias, it is necessary to
overcome the labor-capital contradiction
for the consolidation of Rural Education. It
is a utopia, a horizon of collective
construction, which, aiming at overcoming
this contradiction, needs the bonding
between urban unions, rural unions,
associations, social movements in the
countryside and the city, dismantling the
dichotomy imposed by capital.
The emergence of the collective need
of the peasant movement as a project of
society allowed organized peasants to
outline the social reasons for the need of
school, in order to respect and value the
peasantry lifestyle. The school project
(teachers, structure, transport and
management) that discriminates and
devalues peasant knowledge is a cultural
violence towards this class. Therefore,
Rural Education aims at the appropriation
and (re) signification of this reality.
It is not enough, therefore, to
contextualize this school to communicate
with the peasantry, but it is necessary to
recreate it in order to think about the
peasant world and its needs. A school must
contribute to the construction of critical
horizons and the emancipation of this
perspective. Therefore, some experiences
of Pedagogy of Alternation stand out as a
possibility through pedagogical
instruments, in particular the Study Plan,
which organizes the entire school
curriculum based on the articulation
between the school and the family through
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interviews with the family nuclei
themselves, with the communities and with
the peasant social organizations.
The peasant family, just like all
working class families, has no constant
physical presence at school, so, under the
peasant pedagogy, the presence occurs in
the representative councils and in the
school daily life by the territorial
articulation of the nearby families, as is the
case with the ‘training contract’
instrument, which brings together, by
territory, the set of families that decides
their children’s direction of formation,
committing themselves to participate in
said processes.
Pedagogy of Alternation in the state
of Espírito Santo, initially linked to
Agricultural Family Schools and to a
religious network called the MEPES -
Movimento de Educação Promocional do
Espírito Santo (Espírito Santo Promotional
Education Movement), it has been
expanding, in a secular and committed
way, in the north of Espírito Santo due to
the work of social organizations there
present.
Going further, this pedagogy has
been inserted in public schools - municipal
and state, associative, community and
settlement schools. CEFFA Bley, linked to
the MEPES network and RACEFFAES,
has been a cradle for the dissemination of
this peasant pedagogy and has functioned
as a territorial center for Alternating
training in the northern territory of Espírito
Santo, contributing to the process of
peasant schools.
We organized a map (Map 1) in
order to demonstrate graphically the
existence of the northern territory of rural
schools in the state of Espírito Santo.
Although the usual designation is CEFFAs,
EFAs are thus designed to differentiate
from other CEFFAs (municipal,
community and state), which are shown in
the caption.
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Map 1- Northern Territory of Alternation Pedagogy / ES.
Source: Adapted from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 2010.
One of the main guidelines for the
expansion of Pedagogy of Alternation to
the public network in the north of the state
- as it is understood as a proper and
appropriate pedagogy - is mainly to
prevent the closure of schools located in
the countryside. In the same way, it is
intended to insert the voice of the
peasantry into the school through the
pedagogical devices of Alternation, which
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is why this peasantry has become a reality,
as the map shows.
It is true that the strengthening of the
triad land, labor and family faces several
challenges in order not to weaken in the
face of agribusiness constant advance,
which leads to the dehumanization of
peasant work. For this reason, the school
has become the space to experience
peasantry as a valuable experience.
Therefore, in the face of capital
offensives in the countryside, the school
can be an instrument to peasantry children,
youth and adults, who, gradually, are
forcibly distancing themselves from this
territory, even though they live in it. Rural
Education takes place in the countryside
and in the city and fights for the self-
affirmation of the people, because only a
curriculum that meets the peasantry can, in
fact, respect and critically defend their
territories.
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i
En términos sociales, el campesino no es una
persona ni una familia; es una colectividad, con
frecuencia un gremio y – cuando se pone sus moños
– una clase. Un conglomerado social en cuya base
está la economía familiar multiactiva pero del que
forman parte también y por derecho propio quienes,
teniendo funciones no directamente agrícolas,
participan de la forma de vida comunitaria y
comparten el destino de los labradores.
Article Information
Received on May 11th, 2020
Accepted on September 05th, 2020
Published on October, 17th, 2020
Author Contributions: The author were responsible for
the designing, delineating, analyzing and interpreting the
data, production of the manuscript, critical revision of the
content and approval of the final version published.
Conflict of Interest: None reported.
Orcid
Camila Zucon Ramos de Siqueira
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0046-1950
Maria de Fátima Almeida Martins
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9244-3404
How to cite this article
APA
Siqueira, C. Z. R., & Martins, M. F. A. (2020). When
peasantry becomes a verb: peasantry the school. Rev.
Bras. Educ. Camp., 5, e9157.
http://dx.doi.org/10.20873/uft.rbec.e9157
ABNT
SIQUEIRA, C. Z. R.; MARTINS, M. F. A. When peasantry
becomes a verb: peasantry the school!. Rev. Bras. Educ.
Camp., Tocantinópolis, v. 5, e9157, 2020.
http://dx.doi.org/10.20873/uft.rbec.e9157