A Transformative and Dynamic Approach to Advancing Qualitative Research: The Critical Incident Technique (CIT)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.70860/ufnt.rbec.e20333Abstract
The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) holds significant potential as a transformative methodology for educational research within the context of Rural Education. Through a bibliographic and theoretical-reflective investigation, the study examines the conceptual framework and evolution of CIT, proposing its specific application in the field of “Rural Schools” (Escuelas del Campo). The findings indicate that CIT allows the unique experiences of rural school actors (teachers, students, and the community) to emerge and gain visibility, capturing the complexity of learning processes in territories with singular social and geographical characteristics. It is concluded that CIT constitutes a powerful and versatile tool, capable of promoting reflexivity and improving pedagogical practices in contexts of marginality or territorial specificity, establishing itself as an essential resource for strengthening the scientific field of Rural Education.
Downloads
References
Arvidsson, B., & Fridlund, B. (2005). Factors influencing nurse supervisor competence: A critical incident analysis study. Journal of Nursing Management, 13(3), 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2004.00532.x.
Aveyard H., Neale J. (2009). The critical incident technique. In Neale J. (Ed.), Research methods for health and social care (pp. 253–264). Palgrave Macmillan.
Aveyard, H., & Woolliams, M. (2006). In whose best interests? Nurses’ experiences of the administration of sedation in general medical wards in England: An application of the critical incident technique. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 43(8), 929-939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2005.11.021.
Bailey, J. T. (1956). The critical incident technique in identifying behavioral criteria of professional nursing effectiveness. Nursing Research, 5(2), 52–64.
Beech, P., & Norman, I. J. (1995). Patients’ perceptions of the quality of psychiatric nursing care: Findings from a smallscale descriptive study. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 4(2), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.1995.tb00019.x.
Bitner, M. J. (1990). Evaluating Service Encounters: The Effects of Physical Surroundings and Employee Responses. Journal of Marketing, 54(2), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.2307/1251871.
Blanchet, A., & Gotman, A. (2000). L’indagine e i suoi metodi: l’intervista ((F. G. Merlina, A. Nuzzaci trans. and Eds.). Kappa. (Original work published 1992).
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational research: An Introduction (5th ed.). Longman.
Bormann, J. E., Oman, D., Kemppainen, J. K., Becker, S., Gershwin, M., & Kelly, A. (2006). Mantram repetition for stress management in veterans and employees: A critical incident study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 53(5), 502–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.03752.x.
Boyatzis, R. E. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Sage Publications.
Bradbury-Jones, C. (2007). Enhancing rigour in qualitative health research: Exploring subjectivity through Peshkin’s I’s. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 59(3), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04306.x.
Bradbury-Jones, C., Sambrook, S., & Irvine, F. (2007). The meaning of empowerment for nursing students: A critical incident study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 59(4), 342–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04331.x.
Bradley, C. P. (1992). Uncomfortable prescribing decisions: A critical incident study. British Medical Journal (BMJ), 304(6822), 294–296. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.304.6822.294.
Butterfield, L. D., Borgen, W. A., Amundson, N. E., & Maglio, A.-S. T. (2005). Fifty years of the critical incident technique: 1954-2004 and beyond. Qualitative Research, 5(4), 475–497. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794105056924.
Butterfield, L. D., Borgen, W. A., Maglio, A.-S. T., & Amundson, N. E. (2009). Using the enhanced critical incident technique in counselling psychology research. Canadian Journal of Counselling / Revue canadienne de counseling, 43(4), 265–282.
Calderhead, J. (1989). Reflective teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 5(1), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(89)90018-8.
Furr, S. R. & Carroll, J. J. (2003). Critical Incidents in Student Counselor Development. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81(4), 483-489. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2003.tb00275.x
Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (2004). Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research. Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446280119.
Chell, E. (1998). Critical incident technique. In G. Symon & C. Cassell (Eds.), Qualitative methods and analysis in organizational research (pp. 51-72). Sage.
Chell, E. (2004). Critical incident technique. In C. Cassell & G. Symon (Eds.), Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research (pp. 45-60). Sage.
Coleman, M. N. (2006). Critical Incidents in Multicultural Training: An Examination of Student Experiences. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 34(3), 168–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2006.tb00036.x.
Cormack, D. (2000) The critical incident technique. In The Research Process in Nursing (pp. 327-335). Blackwell Science.
Cox, K., Bergen, A., & Norman, I. J. (1993). Exploring consumer views of care provided by the Macmillan nurse using the critical incident technique. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18(3), 408–415. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.1993.18030408.x
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Sage.
Dachelet, C. Z., Wemett, M. F., Garling, E. J., Craig-Kuhn, K., Kent, N., & Kitzman, H. J. (1981). The Critical Incident Technique Applied to the Evaluation of the Clinical Practicum Setting. Journal of Nursing Education, 20(8), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.3928/0148-4834-19811001-04.
Denscombe, M. (2001). The good research guide: For small-scale social research projects. Open University Press. McGraw-Hill Education McGraw-Hill House Shoppenhangers Road Maidenhead Berkshire Two Penn Plaza, New York.
Dollarhide, C. T., Smith, A. T., & Lemberger, M. E. (2007). Counseling Made Transparent: Pedagogy for a Counseling Theories Course. Counselor Education and Supervision, 46(4), 242–253. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2007.tb00029.x.
FitzGerald, K., Seale, N. S., Kerins, C. A., & McElvaney, R. (2008). The critical incident technique: A useful tool for conducting qualitative research. Journal of Dental Education, 72(3), 299–304. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.0022-0337.2008.72.3.tb04496.x
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 327–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061470.
Flick, U. (Ed.). (2013). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis. SAGE Publications Ltd.
Grant, N. K., Reimer, M., & Bannatyne, J. (1996). Indicators of quality in long-term care facilities. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 33(5), 469–478 https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7489(96)00012-0.
Gremler, D. D. (2004). The Critical Incident Technique in Service Research. Journal of Service Research, 7(1), 65–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670504266138.
Grove, S. J., & Fisk, R. P. (1997). The impact of other customers on service experiences: A critical incident examination of “getting along”. Journal of Retailing, 73(1), 63–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4359(97)90015-4.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Sage.
Holloway, I., & Todres, L. (2003). The Status of Method: Flexibility, Consistency and Coherence. Qualitative Research, 3(3), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794103033004.
Irvine, F. E., Roberts, G. W., Tranter, S., Williams, L., & Jones, P. (2008). Using the critical incident technique to explore student nurses’ perceptions of language awareness. Nurse Education Today, 28(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2007.02.010.
Kain, D. L. (2003). Owning significance: The critical incident technique in research. In K. deMarrais & S. D. Lapan (Eds.), Foundations for research: Methods of inquiry in education and the social sciences (pp. 69–85). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Keatinge, D. (2002). Versatility and flexibility: Attributes of the Critical Incident Technique in nursing research. Nursing & Health Sciences, 4(1–2), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-2018.2002.00099.x
Kemppainen, J. K. (2000). The critical incident technique and nursing care quality research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 32(5), 1264–1271. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.13652648.2000.01597.x.
Kirby, E. A. (2010). A Conceptual Model for Critical Incident Analysis. Journal of Critical Incident Analysis, 1(1), 3-16.
Lacey, A. (2010). The research process. In K. Gerrish & A. Lacey (Eds.), The research process in nursing (pp. 13-26). Blackwell Publishing.
Lapidot, Y., Kark, R., & Shamir, B. (2007). The impact of situational vulnerability on the development and erosion of followers’ trust in their leader. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(1), 16–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.11.004.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. SAGE Publications.
Martin, G. W., & Mitchell, G. (2001). A study of critical incident analysis as a route to the identification of change necessary in clinical practice: Addressing the theory–practice gap. Nurse Education in Practice, 1(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1054/nepr.2001.0006.
Mena, J., Flores, M. A., Fernandes, E., & Estrada-Molina, O. (2024). Critical incidents as a strategy to enhance student teachers’ reflection about practice through immersive learning. Reflective Practice, 25(3), 406–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2024.2321500
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Mitchell, G. J. (2001). A qualitative study exploring how qualified mental health nurses deal with incidents that conflict with their accountability: Incidents that conflict with accountability. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 8(3), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2850.2001.00385.x
Molina, M. C., Antunes-Rocha, M. I., & Martins, M. de F. A. (2019). A produção do conhecimento na licenciatura em Educação do Campo: desafios e possibilidades para o fortalecimento da educação do campo. Revista Brasileira de Educação do Campo, 24, e240051. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-24782019240051
Morehouse, R. (2012). Beginning Interpretive Inquiry. Routledge.
Mukeredzi, T. G. (2013). Professional development through teacher roles: Conceptions of professionally unqualified teachers in rural South Africa and Zimbabwe. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 28(11), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.18113/P8JRRE2811
Narayanasamy, A., & Owens, J. (2001). A critical incident study of nurses’ responses to the spiritual needs of their patients. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 33(4), 446–455. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01690.x.
Narayanasamy, A., Clissett, P., Parumal, L., Thompson, D., Annasamy, S., & Edge, R. (2004). Responses to the spiritual needs of older people. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 48(1), 6–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03163.x.
Norman, I. J. (1995). The nurse-patient relationship. Nursing Standard, 9(44), 35–38.
Norman, I. J., Redfern, S. J., Tomalin, D. A., & Oliver, S. (1992). Developing Flanagan’s critical incident technique to elicit indicators of high and low quality nursing care from patients and their nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 17(5), 590–600. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.1992.tb02837.x
Nuzzaci, A. (2011a). Developing a Reflective Competence for a Master’s Level Programme on E-Learning: The Leonardo Project REFLECT. International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 2(4), 24–49. https://doi.org/10.4018/jdldc.2011100103.
Nuzzaci, A. (2011b). Competenze riflessive tra professionalità educative e insegnamento. Lecce-Brescia: Pensa MultiMedia Editore s.r.l.
Nuzzaci, A. (2012). Il Progetto REFLECT. Lecce-Brescia: Pensa MultiMedia.
Nuzzaci, A. (2017). Applicazione e analisi della Tecnica dell’Incidente Critico in alcune pratiche di ricerca sulla riflessività: possibilità e limiti. In TMRE, Formare alla ricerca empirica in educazione. Atti del Convegno Nazionale del Gruppo di Lavoro SIPED – Teorie e Metodi della Ricerca Empirica in Educazione (pp. 72-85). Bologna: AlmaMater – AMS ACTA. https://doi.org/10.6092/unibo%2Famsacta%2F5634.
Nuzzaci, A., & Orecchio, F. (2023). The Critical Incident Technique (CIT): An Evolving Qualitative Technique. Formazione & insegnamento, 21(2), 136-145. https://doi.org/10.7346/-fei-XXI-02-23_17.
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
Peña, A. L. N., & Rojas, J. G. (2014). Ethical aspects of children’s perceptions of information-giving in care. Nursing Ethics, 21(2), 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733013484483.
Pescosolido, A. T. (2002). Emergent leaders as managers of group emotion. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(5), 583–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00145-5.
Post, I. von. (1996). Exploring ethical dilemmas in perioperative nursing practice through critical incidents. Nursing Ethics, 3(3), 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330960030
Redfern, S., & Norman, I. (1999a). Quality of nursing care perceived by patients and their nurses: An application of the critical incident technique. Part 1. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 8(4), 407–413. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2702.1999.0288a.x
Redfern, S., & Norman, I. (1999b). Quality of nursing care perceived by patients and their nurses: An application of the critical incident technique. Part 1. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 8(4), 414-421. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2702.1999.0288b.x
Schluter, J., Seaton, P., & Chaboyer, W. (2008). Critical incident technique: A user’s guide for nurse researchers. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 61(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04490.x
Schoeps, D. (1993). Methoden und Techniken der qualitativen Forschung. Oldenbourg.
Schwandt, T. (1997). Qualitative Inquiry. Sage.
Sharoff, L. (2006). A Qualitative Study of How Experienced Certified Holistic Nurses Learn to Become Competent Practitioners. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 24(2), 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898010105282525
Sharoff, L. (2007). Critical Incident Technique Utilization in Research on Holistic Nurses. Holistic Nursing Practice, 21(5), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.HNP.0000287989.40215.87
Sharoff, L. (2008). Critique of the critical incident technique. Journal of Research in Nursing, 13(4), 201-309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987107081248
Skovholt, T. M., & McCarthy, P. R. (1988). Critical Incidents: Catalysts for Counselor Development. Journal of Counseling & Development, 67(2), 69–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1988.tb02016.x
Steven, A., Wilson, G., Turunen, H., Vizcaya-Moreno, M. F., Azimirad, M., Kakurel, J., Porras, J., Tella, S., Pérez-Cañaveras, R., Sasso, L., Aleo, G., Myhre, K., Ringstad, Ø., Sara-Aho, A., Scott, M., & Pearson, P. (2020). Critical Incident Techniques and Reflection in Nursing and Health Professions Education: Systematic Narrative Review. Nurse educator, 45(6), E57–E61. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNE.0000000000000796
Stodter, A., & Whitehead, A. (2024). Thinking again about the use of think aloud and stimulated recall methods in sport coaching. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 16(5), 456–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2024.2377658
Tripp, D. (2011). Critical incidents in teaching: Developing professional judgement (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Turunen, H. (2004). How can critical incidents be used to describe health promotion in the Finnish European Network of Health Promoting Schools? Health Promotion International, 19(4), 419–427. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dah403.
Urquhart, C. (2013). Grounded theory for qualitative research: A practical guide. Sage Publications Ltd.
Urquhart, C., Armstrong, C., Spink, S., Thomas, R., Yeoman, A., & Fenton, R. (2004). JISC User Behaviour Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. JUSTEIS: JISC Usage Surveys: Trends in Electronic Information Services, Final report (2003/2004 cycle five report). Retrieved August 15, 2023.
Urquhart, C., Light, A., Thomas, R., Barker, A., Yeoman, A., Cooper, J., Armstrong, C., Fenton, R., Lonsdale, R., & Spink, S. (2003). Critical incident technique and explicitation interviewing in studies of information behavior. Library & Information Science Research, 25(1), 63–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-8188(02)00166-4
Vermersch, P. (1994). L’entretien d’explicitation. ESF.
Wang, F., & Hannafin, M. J. (2005). Design-based research and technology-enhanced learning environments. ETR&D, 53, 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504682
Watkins, K. E., Ellinger, A. D., Suh, B., Brenes-Dawsey, J. C., & Oliver, L. C. (2022). Further evolving the critical incident technique (CIT) by applying different contemporary approaches for analyzing qualitative data in CIT studies. European Journal of Training and Development, 46(7–8), 709–726. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-12-2021-0185
Wheeler, S. (2003). The role of teacher reflection in determining classroom effectiveness. Journal of Educational Practice, 14(2), 23–35.
Woolsey, L. K. (1986). The critical incident technique: An innovative qualitative method of research. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 20(4), 242 – 254. Retrieved August 15.
Zyzanski, S. J., McWhinney, I. R., Blake, R. Jr., Crabtree, B. F., & Miller, W. L. (1992). Qualitative research: Perspectives on the future. In B. F. Crabtree & W. L. Miller (Eds.), Doing qualitative research (pp. 231-248). Sage Publications, Inc.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Antonella Nuzzaci
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Proposal for Copyright Notice Creative Commons
1. Policy Proposal to Open Access Journals
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
A. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License that allows sharing the work with recognition of its initial publication in this journal.
B. Authors are able to take on additional contracts separately, non-exclusive distribution of the version of the paper published in this journal (ex .: publish in institutional repository or as a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
C. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (eg .: in institutional repositories or on their website) at any point before or during the editorial process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as increase the impact and the citation of published work (See the Effect of Open Access).
